Postmodern Architecture

Postmodern architecture is a new style of construction, which gives so much significance to how the buildings looks just as much as to the practicality. The objective of postmodernism featured a vast range of principles and practices that are not usually considered 'acceptable' founded on long-established philosophies. It has affected each and every sector of discipline, comprising Arts and Architecture. Constructions are not only planned to implement common purpose but also integrated with significant features such as pluralism, irony, paradox and contextualism.

Piazza d’Italia, Charles Moore, 1978.

Swan and Dolphin Hotels, 1990, Michael Graves.

Sometimes postmodern architecture is known as neo-eclectic. It ignores the common structures of buildings, and instead goes for extraordinary and state-of-the-art constructions, flamboyant hues, decorations, ornaments and various designs. Many structures now have sculptural shapes or even plastic decorating its exteriors and interiors, which contributes to the grandeur and uniqueness of the structures. It adopts miscellaneous stylistic features from various structures, and then integrates them together to come up with something completely unique. Even though it adopts from the common modern forms, a new twist is given to them to make them look outstanding. Albeit postmodern architecture was transpired from the modern form, it goes against the very core of modernism as it makes use of decorations to the fullest. It utilizes the corresponding forms, features and shapes, which are then complemented by various contrasting hues to make them stand out. Since the façade of the building is symmetrical, the corners are tightly packed and the windows are in line with the walls. The distinctive feature of postmodern design is comfortable spaces with a combination of materials, unconventional angles and symmetry.

Postmodern constructions assure sustainability, use high standard materials, and are fully practical and useful. Incidentally, many materials like iron and steel also became obtainable, and this led to innovative developments of new methods in construction.

Denver Public Library, Michael Graves, 1995.

MI6, Terry Farrell, 1994.

Les Espaces d’Abraxas, Ricardo Bofill, 1978.

Team Disney building in Burbank, California, 1986.

400 West Market in Louisville, Kentucky by Philip Johnson (1993).

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 Top of FormSearch Bottom Sometimes this style uses minimal materials and embellishments, borrowing form over function from the past with eclectic designs. The types that delineated the style were craft revival, ergonomic furniture and art pieces like sculptural chairs and coffee tables. Plastic laminates, marble and recycled materials were used to create objects. Innovations of modern materials such as chrome, PVC and plastic set at ease the creation and manufacturing of plain and stylish furniture to compliment progressive designed spaces. The resulting look is sleek, fresh and contemporary, completely functional and practical, and artistic in nature.

Robert Venturi’s Vanna Venturi House (1964).

Robert Venturi’s Vanna Venturi House represents the Postmodernist target of communicating a meaning and the characteristic of symbolism. The façade is a symbolic post-modern house through the use of symmetry and the arch over the entrance.

Sony Building , New York City by Philip Johnson (1978)

The Sony Building which is formerly known as AT&T Building is a tall skyscraper which generates connotations of outstanding advanced technology. Although, the top contradicts this. The top part conveys features of classical antiquity. Double coding is visible on the Sony Tower and is a prevalent trait of Postmodernism. This edifice became immediately popular for being anticipative because the roof was constructed similar to an open pediment.

References

Research:

"Postmodern architecture". Available at:                                                             https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Postmodern-architecture.pdf [Accessed 21 May 2017]

"Defining Postmodern Architecture and Its Characteristics"[Online]. Independent Chartered Building Surveyors. Available at:                                                                                                 http://www.cockrams-surveyors.co.uk/blog/buildings/defining-postmodern-architecture-and-its-characteristics/ [Accessed 21 May 2017]

René Boer. "8 Reasons You Will Also Like Postmodern Architecture In 2016"
[Online]. 22 December 2015. Failed Architecture.  Available at: https://www.failedarchitecture.com/8-reasons-you-will-also-like-postmodern-architecture-in-2016/[Accessed 21 May 2017]

"Stylistic Characteristics of Postmodern Architecture With Examples"[Online]. Buzzle. Available at: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/stylistic-characteristics-of-postmodern-architecture.html [Accessed 21 May 2017]

Terry Wong. "Design Style: Post-Modern"[Online]. HGTV. Available at: http://www.hgtv.ca/decorating/blog/design-style-post-modern-26894/ [Accessed 21 May 2017]

"10 BUILDINGS HOMES TOWNS PARKS THAT CHANGED AMERICA"[Online]. wttw. Available at:                                                                                                      http://interactive.wttw.com/tenbuildings/vanna-venturi-house [Accessed 21 May 2017]

Images:

René Boer. "8 Reasons You Will Also Like Postmodern Architecture In 2016"
[Online]. 22 December 2015. Failed Architecture.  Available at: https://www.failedarchitecture.com/8-reasons-you-will-also-like-postmodern-architecture-in-2016/[Accessed 21 May 2017]

"10 BUILDINGS HOMES TOWNS PARKS THAT CHANGED AMERICA"[Online]. wttw.  Available at:                                                                                    http://interactive.wttw.com/tenbuildings/vanna-venturi-house [Accessed 21 May 2017]

"Postmodern architecture"[Online]. Wikipedia. Available at:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_architecture [Accessed 21 May 2017]

Pop Art

Pop art is an art movement that became apparent in Britain and the United States. It was the dominant avant-garde style. This form of avant-garde art enabled the bright colour scheme to highlight some elements in contemparaneous culture, and made it easier to reduce the separation between the commercial arts and the fine arts. In Pop art, material is often visually withdrawn from its familiar context, separated and blended with unrelated material.

The term Pop-Art which means ‘Popular’ art was established by Lawrence Alloway. A movement represented by means of consumerism and popular culture imagery. Portrayed by vivid, uncomplicated, daily imagery, flamboyant block colours, fascinating to look at and had a modern "hip" sensation. Ordinary sources of Pop iconography were advertisements, merchandise packaging, comic strips, images of film-stars, pop-stars and movies. Pop art incorporates a vast selection of work with extremely dissimilar perspectives and positions.

British Pop-Art became apparent from within the Independent Group which was a non-formal group of artists made up of painter Richard Hamilton, curator and art critic Lawrence Alloway, and sculptor Eduardo Paolozzi, that met up with each other in the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London. Artists within the Independent Group in London instigated the usage of ‘pop’ in reference to art, where shortly American artists imitated their track and embodied popular culture into their artwork as well. Although the individual styles diversify considerably, all the artists maintain a state of sharing features and attributes in their selection of popular culture imagery as their basic theme.

Pop art emerged by the New York artists Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, James Rosenquist, and Claes Oldenburg. They all depicted popular imagery and were actually part of an international phenomenon. By creating portrayals and even sculptures of abundant cultural articles and media celebrities, the Pop art movement aspired to make less distinct the dividing lines between ‘high’ art and ‘low’ culture. The extremely dominant features of Pop art is the notion that there is no social scale of culture and that art itself may adopt from any reference.

One of the most noteworthy pop artists was surely the artist Andy Warhol, a highly successful magazine illustrator and graphic designer. One of his most well-known depictions was that of a Campbell's soup can and also Coca-Cola bottles. Warhol is known for creating artistic portrayals of Marilyn Monroe. He must have had some impact on how and why he created the artworks that he was prominent for. Andy Warhol is most renowned for his bright-coloured portraits of celebrities, but the way he dealt with the topic has differed considerably throughout his career.

Campbell's soup can (1968) by Andy Warhol

Another remarkable pop artist was Roy Lichtenstein, an American painter, sculptor, and litographer. He maintained his interest in the abstract expressionism but subsequently was drawn to pop art. He was known for creating pop art style replications of master painters such as Monet. Lichtenstein created art using comic strips as the topic by appropriating the techniques he used to produce the images in comic books to create his paintings. His high-impact, iconic images have since become closely associated with Pop art, and his procedure of creating images, which combined features of mechanical replications and hand drawings.

Whaam! (1963) by Roy Lichtenstein

Architect and design studio De Pas, D’Urbino & Lomazzi was founded by three prominent Italian designers of the same name who are famous for their unusual seating design incorporating pop-culture icons such as the inflatable Blow and the kitschy Joe Sofa. The trio paid particular attention on architecture, urban development and industrial design. They developed a particular interest in inventing furniture and interim buildings featuring avant-garde signs, materials and industrial technologies. The trio was influenced by pop culture and consequently focused on radical seating objects. They took the perspectives of a modern society in which furniture was no longer required to last a lifetime, so they introduced a collection of furniture that represented completely the contrary. The transparent armchair Blow (1967) was manufactured from PVC film. It was the first inflatable living room furniture to be mass-produced and was commercially successful.

The Inflatable Blow (1967) by De Pas, D’Urbino & Lomazzi

Joe Sofa (1970) by De Pas, D’Urbino & Lomazzi

Cactus coat rack (1972), is an article Guido Drocco  co-designed with fellow Italian Franco Mello for the Gufram brand. The Cactus demands the dividing line between interior and exterior, natural and artificial, and demonstrates the kind of testing that was enabled by the period’s quick developments in new materials. A collection of revolutionary designs which formed part of Gufram’s series was produced in self-hardening polyurethane foam with an original lacquer finish, called Guflac.

           

Cactus coat rack (1972) by Guido Drocco

References

Research:

"Pop-Art Movement" [online]. Visual Arts Encyclopedia. Available at:                                          http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/pop-art.htm [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"Roy Lichtenstein Artist Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org . Content compiled and written by Rachel Gershman. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from:                                                                                                                                                          http://www.theartstory.org/artist-lichtenstein-roy.htm [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"Pop Art Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org . Content compiled and written by Justin Wolf. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors.
Available from:                                                                                                                                                           http://www.theartstory.org/movement-pop-art.htm [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"Joe" [online].  Centro Studi Poltronova. Available at:                                          http://www.centrostudipoltronova.it/portfolio_post/joe-3/ [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"Guido Drocco" [online].  Pamono. Available at:                                          https://www.pamono.eu/designers/guido-drocco [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"De Pas, D'Urbino, Lomazzi" [online].  Designwissen. Available at:                                          http://www.designwissen.net/seiten/de-pas-durbino-lomazzi [Accessed 14 May 2017]

Images:

"Pop-Art Movement" [online]. Visual Arts Encyclopedia. Available at:                                          http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/pop-art.htm [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"Joe" [online].  Centro Studi Poltronova. Available at:                                          http://www.centrostudipoltronova.it/portfolio_post/joe-3/ [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"Guido Drocco" [online].  Pamono. Available at:                                          https://www.pamono.eu/designers/guido-drocco [Accessed 14 May 2017]

"De Pas, D'Urbino, Lomazzi" [online].  Designwissen. Available at:                                          http://www.designwissen.net/seiten/de-pas-durbino-lomazzi [Accessed 14 May 2017]

Organic Design

Organic design is both a style and a concept of design and construction. It is not limited to a particular style, but it can be found in traditional and also in high-tech or minimalist styles. Being inspirational by organic shapes and often also by inorganic, especially crystalline, structures, which both are natural. Traditional characteristics of organic design are wavy lines, dynamic curves and solid arches which stand in contrast to the geometric, practical style. In most cases  undefined forms are used which seem natural and also represent nature. The intention is to accomplish a satisfying, natural notion. Numerous designs refer to structures that are developed naturally or formed by the forces of nature. Its attributes aren’t the stylistic expression, but the concept of construction which resembles nature. Organic architecture makes great efforts to unite space, combine interiors and exteriors, and generate harmonic surroundings. Reoccured techniques comprise asymmetrical building, flowing lines and soft shapes, directed structures, plastic volumes and dynamic shapes. Modernist architects moved the notion of organic architecture to an advanced progression. Contemporary organic constructions are never straight or inflexible geometrical but wavy lines and curved shapes which takes this style to its starting point organic, flowing natural forms.

Through the entire process of organic furniture, no harsh chemicals are used but raw materials that comprise synthetic fibers. Organic is found in furniture design as well. Soft continuous curves which adapt naturally the human figure to optimize well-being is regarded organic in design, which is also known as ergonomic design. Ergonomic designs are easily found in organic furniture because natural materials are used and often imitates the form of nature.

Alvar Aalto

Alvar Aalto’s architectural masterpieces such as lighting, textiles, furniture and glassware, as well as sculptures and paintings were total works of art. Often Aalto was an Expressionist in style. He also implemented his innovative ambition to furniture, co-founded Artek in 1935 and originated the iconic Savoy Vase in 1937.

Savoy vase designed in 1936 by Alvar Aalto

He was the first furniture designer to use the cantilever concept in chair design using wood and also a specific importance with the process of trying bent plywood chairs, the Paimio chair which is mostly remarkable.

The Paimio Chair, the best-known piece of furniture designed by Alvar Aalto (1931-1932)

Model 31 Cantilever Chair (1930) by Alvar Aalto

Charles Eames

Charles Eames distinctive synergy generated an entire fresh appearance in furniture. Lean and stylish, playful and practical. Elegant, modern and beautifully undecorated. He introduced molded plywood chairs and the world-renowned Eames lounge chair, presently in the indefinite collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. His work was an amalgamation of art and science, design and architecture, process and product, style and function.

Lounge Chair Wood (1946) by Charles Eames

Lounge Chair and Ottoman (1955) by Charles Eames

Designed in 1950, the fibreglass “Dax” armchair by Charles Eames features an organically formed seat.

Folding Screen 1946 by Charles Eames.

Eero Saarinen

Saarinen and Charles Eames, both wanted to explore potential new materials and processes. They pushed each other creatively while working together on several projects and they managed to produce a collection of molded plywood chairs. Saarinen designed many of the famous Knoll pieces, like the Womb chair, the 70 series seating collection and, Tulip chairs and tables.

The Womb Chair Model No. 70  designed in 1947 by Eero Saarinen

Pedestal Collection (1955-6) by Eero Saarinen

Eero Saarinen with model and sketches of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial

References

Research:

"Organic Design"[Online]. Musei Italiani. Available from:                   http://www.museiitaliani.org/organic-design/  [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Organic Architecture"[Online]. Guggenheim. Available from:                    https://www.guggenheim.org/arts-curriculum/topic/organic-architecture [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"History of Organic Architecture"[Online]. Organic Architecture. Available from:   http://www.arch.mcgill.ca/prof/sijpkes/arch374/winter2002/pslizhou/history.htm [Accessed 7 May 2017]

H. F. Koeper. "Alvar Aalto"[Online]. Britannica. Available from:     https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alvar-Aalto#ref18338 [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Paimio Chair"[Online]. MoMA. Available from:               https://www.moma.org/collection/works/92879  [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Eero Saarinen"[Online]. Knoll. Available from:                               https://www.knoll.com/designer/Eero-Saarinen [Accessed 7 May 2017]

Images:

H. F. Koeper. "Alvar Aalto"[Online]. Britannica. Available from:     https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alvar-Aalto#ref18338 [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Eames Lounge Chair Wood"[Online]. Wikipedia. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eames_Lounge_Chair_Wood [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Paimio Chair"[Online]. MoMA. Available from:              https://www.moma.org/collection/works/92879  [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Alvar Aalto Cantilever Chair, Model 31 "[Online]. 1stdibs. Available from:  https://www.1stdibs.com/furniture/seating/armchairs/alvar-aalto-cantilever-chair-model-31/id-f_3254912/  [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Eames Plastic Armchair DAX"[Online]. vitra. Available from:                            https://www.vitra.com/en-it/living/product/details/eames-plastic-armchair-dax [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Folding Screen"Online]. MoMA. Available from:                  https://www.moma.org/collection/works/2035?locale=en [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Eero Saarinen". Wikipedia. Available from:                              https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eero_Saarinen [Accessed 7 May 2017]

"Eero Saarinen"[Online]. Knoll. Available from:                              https://www.knoll.com/designer/Eero-Saarinen [Accessed 7 May 2017]

International Style

The International Style became synonymous with corporate modernism, "architecture of the modern movement". An International Exhibition was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. US architect Philip Johnson gave this style its name and identity. The style was linked with political movements, particularly the socialist and the communist administrations. It also became a worldwide symbol of modernity, since countries were enthusiastically eager to industrialize and compete politically and economically.

This style was sometimes called ‘minimalist’ architecture. Structures are distinguished as they are absent from decorations and minimized to their most fundamental tectonic features. Enormous extents of windows are used together with supplementary features similar to cantilevers. This brings the dwellers nearby to nature even when indoors since it removes completely the distinction between the interior and the exterior. The recently discovered cheap iron and steel, and subsequently the steel skeleton structure, made the traditional brick and stone construction techniques outdated. Architects began using steel-enhanced concrete for floors and other secondary support elements, and fenestrating the exteriors of buildings with glass.

The most common characteristics of International Style buildings are rectilinear forms such as light, taut plane surfaces that are completely devoid of applied ornamentation and decoration, open and even fluid interior spaces and a visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Modern materials like glass for the facade, steel for exterior support and concrete for interior support and floors were used to enhance the construction. The International Style generated a balance between artistic expression, aspect, practical use and technology which was established in an austere and disciplined new architecture, suitable authentication of modern innovation and development.

Furniture designs are basic and practical with no applied decoration or references to historical styles. They were constructed of tubular steel and glass to be mass produced and also definitely inexpensive. Upholstered pieces manifest an immeasurable utilization of black, brown or natural leather to harmonize with the undecorated interiors.

1. The Wassily Chair by Marcel Breuer
2. The Barcelona Couch by Mies van der Rohe
3. The Barcelona Table by Mies van der Rohe
4. The Barcelona Lounge Chair by Mies van der Rohe
5. Adjustable Table E1027 by Eileen Gray
6. The Womb Chair by Eero Saarinen
7. Laccio Tables by Marcel Breuer
8. LC4 Chaise Longue by Le Corbusier, Charlotte Perriand and Pierre Jeanneret
9. LC2 Petite Modele Two-Seat Sofa by Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret and Charlotte Perriand

The International Style is generally considered as the climax of modernist architecture, the final product to find a method of style in structure complementing the present that discarded the patterns and decorations of the past. The modern aspect was clearly noticeable by establishments with enormous extents of glass windows, tubular steel frames for furnishings, sleek materials like leather, steel and plastic, as well as scanty decorations. This Style had become an absolutely worldwide typical example of modernism.

Charles Edouard Jeanneret known as Le Corbusier, streamlined architecture to its major practical characteristics. His utopian designs were sometimes distinguished by the substantial utilization of enhanced pre-cast concrete which progressed to Brutalism, a superior-practical style of urban and campus architecture. Some of his best-known International Style works are the Villa Savoye (1928-30) Poissy-sur-Seine in France, the Semi-Detached House (1927) Weissenhofsiedlung in Stuttgart and Unite d'Habitation (1958) Interbau Fair in Berlin.

Le Corbusier with his model Villa Savoye (1928)

Mies van der Rohe was most obviously identified for the glass and steel skyscrapers such as the Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1948-51) in Chicago, the sumptuous Seagram Building (1958) in New York, designed in collaboration with the interior designer Philip Johnson and the IBM Building (1971) (now 330 North Wabash) in New York.

Lake Shore Drive Apartments by Mies van der Rohe (1949-51)

Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud assisted in bringing more rounded and smooth continuous geometric figures to the movement. He designed numerous apartment blocks with a sober but practical austerity. One of his sophisticated and geometrical International Style comprised the Bio-Children's Convalescent Home (1960) near Arnhem.

Bio-Children’s Convalescent  Home by JJP Oud (1960)

Famous International Style Buildings

Among the most iconic examples of the International Style of architecture are the following:

- The Fagus Factory (1911-25) Alfeld on the Leine (Gropius)
- The Bauhaus School Building (1925) at Dessau (Gropius)
- Lovell House (1929) Los Angeles (Neutra)
- Villa Savoye (1929-30) Poissy-sur-Seine (Le Corbusier)
- Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1948-51) Chicago (Mies van der Rohe)
- The Graduate Center (1950) Harvard University (Gropius)
- Seagram Building (1954-58) New York (Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson)
- Inland Steel Building (1957) Chicago (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill)
- Bio-Children's Convalescent Home (1960) Arnhem (Oud)
- Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower (1967-91) Toronto (Mies van der Rohe)
- Lake Point Tower (1968), Chicago (George Schipporeit and John Heinrich)
- John Hancock Center (1969) Chicago (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill)                   
- IBM Building (1971) New York (Mies van der Rohe)
- Sears/Willis Tower (1974) Chicago (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill)

The Bauhaus School Building (1925) at Dessau (Gropius)

Villa Savoye (1929-30) Poissy-sur-Seine (Le Corbusier)

References

Research:

The International Style Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org
Content compiled and written by Peter Clericuzio. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from:                              
http://www.theartstory.org/movement-international-style.htm [Accessed 30 April 2017]

Mandi Johnson. "Design Style 101: International Style"[Online]. 9 October 2015. A Beautiful Mess. Available from:                                                                                      http://abeautifulmess.com/2015/10/design-style-101-international-style.html [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"International Style of Modern Architecture"[Online]. Architecture Glossary
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ART and DESIGN. Available from:                                                
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/international-style.htm [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"A Movement in a Moment: The International Style"[Online]. Phaidon. Available from: http://de.phaidon.com/agenda/architecture/articles/2016/june/30/a-movement-in-a-moment-the-international-style/ [Accessed 30 April 2017]

Images:

Mandi Johnson. "Design Style 101: International Style"[Online]. 9 October 2015. A Beautiful Mess. Available from:                                                                                                         http://abeautifulmess.com/2015/10/design-style-101-international-style.html [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"A Movement in a Moment: The International Style"[Online]. Phaidon. Available from: http://de.phaidon.com/agenda/architecture/articles/2016/june/30/a-movement-in-a-moment-the-international-style/ [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"Bio-Children's Convalescent Home, in Arnheim, Netherlands, was designed by J.J.P. Oud in 1952–60." Courtesy of the Royal Netherlands Embassy, Department of Cultural Affairs, Washington, D.C.

The International Style Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org. Content compiled and written by Peter Clericuzio. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from:  
http://www.theartstory.org/movement-international-style.htm [Accessed 30 April 2017]