International Style

The International Style became synonymous with corporate modernism, "architecture of the modern movement". An International Exhibition was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. US architect Philip Johnson gave this style its name and identity. The style was linked with political movements, particularly the socialist and the communist administrations. It also became a worldwide symbol of modernity, since countries were enthusiastically eager to industrialize and compete politically and economically.

This style was sometimes called ‘minimalist’ architecture. Structures are distinguished as they are absent from decorations and minimized to their most fundamental tectonic features. Enormous extents of windows are used together with supplementary features similar to cantilevers. This brings the dwellers nearby to nature even when indoors since it removes completely the distinction between the interior and the exterior. The recently discovered cheap iron and steel, and subsequently the steel skeleton structure, made the traditional brick and stone construction techniques outdated. Architects began using steel-enhanced concrete for floors and other secondary support elements, and fenestrating the exteriors of buildings with glass.

The most common characteristics of International Style buildings are rectilinear forms such as light, taut plane surfaces that are completely devoid of applied ornamentation and decoration, open and even fluid interior spaces and a visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Modern materials like glass for the facade, steel for exterior support and concrete for interior support and floors were used to enhance the construction. The International Style generated a balance between artistic expression, aspect, practical use and technology which was established in an austere and disciplined new architecture, suitable authentication of modern innovation and development.

Furniture designs are basic and practical with no applied decoration or references to historical styles. They were constructed of tubular steel and glass to be mass produced and also definitely inexpensive. Upholstered pieces manifest an immeasurable utilization of black, brown or natural leather to harmonize with the undecorated interiors.

1. The Wassily Chair by Marcel Breuer
2. The Barcelona Couch by Mies van der Rohe
3. The Barcelona Table by Mies van der Rohe
4. The Barcelona Lounge Chair by Mies van der Rohe
5. Adjustable Table E1027 by Eileen Gray
6. The Womb Chair by Eero Saarinen
7. Laccio Tables by Marcel Breuer
8. LC4 Chaise Longue by Le Corbusier, Charlotte Perriand and Pierre Jeanneret
9. LC2 Petite Modele Two-Seat Sofa by Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret and Charlotte Perriand

The International Style is generally considered as the climax of modernist architecture, the final product to find a method of style in structure complementing the present that discarded the patterns and decorations of the past. The modern aspect was clearly noticeable by establishments with enormous extents of glass windows, tubular steel frames for furnishings, sleek materials like leather, steel and plastic, as well as scanty decorations. This Style had become an absolutely worldwide typical example of modernism.

Charles Edouard Jeanneret known as Le Corbusier, streamlined architecture to its major practical characteristics. His utopian designs were sometimes distinguished by the substantial utilization of enhanced pre-cast concrete which progressed to Brutalism, a superior-practical style of urban and campus architecture. Some of his best-known International Style works are the Villa Savoye (1928-30) Poissy-sur-Seine in France, the Semi-Detached House (1927) Weissenhofsiedlung in Stuttgart and Unite d'Habitation (1958) Interbau Fair in Berlin.

Le Corbusier with his model Villa Savoye (1928)

Mies van der Rohe was most obviously identified for the glass and steel skyscrapers such as the Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1948-51) in Chicago, the sumptuous Seagram Building (1958) in New York, designed in collaboration with the interior designer Philip Johnson and the IBM Building (1971) (now 330 North Wabash) in New York.

Lake Shore Drive Apartments by Mies van der Rohe (1949-51)

Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud assisted in bringing more rounded and smooth continuous geometric figures to the movement. He designed numerous apartment blocks with a sober but practical austerity. One of his sophisticated and geometrical International Style comprised the Bio-Children's Convalescent Home (1960) near Arnhem.

Bio-Children’s Convalescent  Home by JJP Oud (1960)

Famous International Style Buildings

Among the most iconic examples of the International Style of architecture are the following:

- The Fagus Factory (1911-25) Alfeld on the Leine (Gropius)
- The Bauhaus School Building (1925) at Dessau (Gropius)
- Lovell House (1929) Los Angeles (Neutra)
- Villa Savoye (1929-30) Poissy-sur-Seine (Le Corbusier)
- Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1948-51) Chicago (Mies van der Rohe)
- The Graduate Center (1950) Harvard University (Gropius)
- Seagram Building (1954-58) New York (Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson)
- Inland Steel Building (1957) Chicago (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill)
- Bio-Children's Convalescent Home (1960) Arnhem (Oud)
- Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower (1967-91) Toronto (Mies van der Rohe)
- Lake Point Tower (1968), Chicago (George Schipporeit and John Heinrich)
- John Hancock Center (1969) Chicago (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill)                   
- IBM Building (1971) New York (Mies van der Rohe)
- Sears/Willis Tower (1974) Chicago (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill)

The Bauhaus School Building (1925) at Dessau (Gropius)

Villa Savoye (1929-30) Poissy-sur-Seine (Le Corbusier)

References

Research:

The International Style Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org
Content compiled and written by Peter Clericuzio. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from:                              
http://www.theartstory.org/movement-international-style.htm [Accessed 30 April 2017]

Mandi Johnson. "Design Style 101: International Style"[Online]. 9 October 2015. A Beautiful Mess. Available from:                                                                                      http://abeautifulmess.com/2015/10/design-style-101-international-style.html [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"International Style of Modern Architecture"[Online]. Architecture Glossary
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ART and DESIGN. Available from:                                                
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/international-style.htm [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"A Movement in a Moment: The International Style"[Online]. Phaidon. Available from: http://de.phaidon.com/agenda/architecture/articles/2016/june/30/a-movement-in-a-moment-the-international-style/ [Accessed 30 April 2017]

Images:

Mandi Johnson. "Design Style 101: International Style"[Online]. 9 October 2015. A Beautiful Mess. Available from:                                                                                                         http://abeautifulmess.com/2015/10/design-style-101-international-style.html [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"A Movement in a Moment: The International Style"[Online]. Phaidon. Available from: http://de.phaidon.com/agenda/architecture/articles/2016/june/30/a-movement-in-a-moment-the-international-style/ [Accessed 30 April 2017]

"Bio-Children's Convalescent Home, in Arnheim, Netherlands, was designed by J.J.P. Oud in 1952–60." Courtesy of the Royal Netherlands Embassy, Department of Cultural Affairs, Washington, D.C.

The International Style Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org. Content compiled and written by Peter Clericuzio. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from:  
http://www.theartstory.org/movement-international-style.htm [Accessed 30 April 2017]

Scandinavian

Art has been extremely affected by the social and political distinctive features. Despite the differences between the Scandinavian countries, they do have some ordinary cultural, geophysical and historical characteristics. It is an amalgamation of designs from Denmark, Iceland, Sweden, Finland and Norway. Functionality, simplicity, minimalism and beauty are the guiding principles that have shaped the design sensibilities of Nordic Europe. Although the design is simple, the spaces are filled with light, airiness, serenity and a feeling of oneness nature. The design principles is using neutral colour palettes, keep lines simple and clean, and squeeze the most favourable function out of every part of the decor. The style is highly functional and effective without requiring heavy elements. They used form-pressed wood, plastics, anodized or enameled aluminium, or pressed steel to combine the best designs. The prominent design responsiveness was egalitarian, persistently ignoring elaborate decoration and acknowledge simple elegance that were affordable and easy accessible to people in all walks of life. The concept of ‘beautiful things that make your life better’ was considered tremendously.

The Scandinavian design emanated from a design exhibition that travelled the United States and Canada. Scandinavian designers showcased furniture, glassware and home accessories to promote the ‘Scandinavian way of living’. It established the beautiful, simple, clean designs, inspired by the luxurious lifestyles of aristocracy and royalty. Scandinavian designers were instrumental in developing ideas into design principles and philosophies that eventually had a worldwide effect. The main focal point was on requirement or purpose, not on ornamentation or glamour as they create spaces that are simple, uncluttered and efficient, yet warm and welcoming. Long, harsh winters with a very few hours of daylight inspired Scandinavian designers to generate bright light and practical environments. The outcome was a style that in a very skilful manner combined beauty with practicality.  

The Scandinavian design is frequently known as democratic design. In order with current democratic social views, everything was made to be available to everyone with the concept that stunning objects could enrich people’s lives. This design has progressed with time, shifting from mainly furniture and product design to an implementation of fundamentals and procedures. Scandinavian design continuously extended its philosophy and aesthetics appropriately, progressing towards environmental friendly homes and skilful practical articles which do not lack elegance and beauty.

Arne Jacobsen

Arne Jacobsen’s timeless designs in furniture and architecture are well known. He potentially used new techniques which enabled him to bend plywood in three dimensions to create his Model 3107 chair. He created a light, simple, effective and compact object that fits perfectly into modern homes till the present day. Almost all his furniture designs were conceived for a specific space.

Model 3107 chair

Poul Henningsen

Poul Henningsen’s distinctive lamp designs were carefully considered and planned. He designed the PH lamp, after analyzing the reflection and baffle of the light rays from the bulb as widely as possible without the glare being visible. The beauty of the elegant smooth lines doesn’t prevent the lamp from performing its function exactly as it was designed to do. His best-known designs are the PH Artichoke and PH5.

PH50 Pendant Lamp

PH Artichoke

Verner Panton

Verner Panton, is famous for his impressive abstract work with a focus on new materials, especially plastics. He designed the single-form moulded plastic chair known as The Panton chair or the S chair due to the shape of an S. Panton’s creations stood apart from those of his contemporaries, and his focus was more on futurestic designs in vibrant colours that are stylistically close to Pop Art.

Panton chair

Other examples of Scandinavian designs:

Tea trolley by Alvar Aalto

The Ball chair by Eero Aarnio

The Pastil chair by Eero Aarnio

Iceblock bowl by Tapio Wirkkala

The Bolle collection by Tapio Wirkkala

Glass birds by Oiva Toikka

Glass rooster by Oiva Toikka

References

Research:
Judith Miller(2005). Furniture World Styles From Classical To Contemporary. London- Dorling Kinsley Limited  and THE PRICE GUIDE COMPANY.
"The Pioneers of Scandinavian Design"[Online]. MyBaze. Available from: https://medium.com/@MyBaze/the-pioneers-of-scandinavian-design-feffe35c52d  [Accessed 23 April 2017]
Katrín Eyþórsdóttir. "The Story Of Scandinavian Design: Combining Function and Aesthetics"[Online]. 13 June 2011. Smashing Magazine. Available from: https://www.smashingmagazine.com/2011/06/the-story-of-scandinavian-design-combining-function-and-aesthetics/ [Accessed 23 April 2017]

Images:

"The Pioneers of Scandinavian Design"[Online]. MyBaze. Available from: https://medium.com/@MyBaze/the-pioneers-of-scandinavian-design-feffe35c52d  [Accessed 23 April 2017]
Katrín Eyþórsdóttir. "The Story Of Scandinavian Design: Combining Function and Aesthetics"[Online]. 13 June 2011. Smashing Magazine. Available from: https://www.smashingmagazine.com/2011/06/the-story-of-scandinavian-design-combining-function-and-aesthetics/ [Accessed 23 April 2017]
"Paul Henningsen"[Online]. Design Within Reach. Available from: http://www.dwr.com/designer-poul-henningsen?lang=en_US [Accessed 23 April 2017]

Art Deco

The Art Deco style also called style moderne, originated in Paris. ''Art Deco design represented modernism turned into fashion'' (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, 2017) . The movement's works are symmetrical, geometric, streamlined, frequently uncomplicated and captivating. Art Deco’s distinctive characteristics of the style derive from repetitive use of linear, geometric, clean shapes including triangular, zigzagged, trapezoidal and chevron-patterned forms often with a streamlined look. Art Deco is a modern art style that endeavours to introduce practical and useful articles with artistic touches emphasizing on the individuality and innovative handmade articles and featured stylized, structured configurations.

Even though Art Deco articles were hardly mass-produced, the characteristic features of the styles brought about a good impression of appreciation for the modernity of the machine and for the intrinsic standards of the design of machine made articles. The articles incorporated both independently crafted objects and mass- produced specified types but the objective was to invent an aerodynamic and nontraditional refinement that represented affluence and worldliness. Art Deco innovators designed limited-edition articles. 

État Cabinet (1922) by Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann

État Cabinet

Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann was born in a family that possessed an ornament enterprise. Therefore, for Ruhlmann it was innate that his inventiveness would be expressed in lavish home articles for which he became popular. He created furniture and light fittings to a mixture of further ornamental essentials like wallpaper. Ruhlmann created an original aesthetic home piece of furniture using unusual, exotic woods with ivory ornamentation. In his pieces of furnishings, Ruhlmann gave an idea with an amalgamation of Art Deco together with the luxurious and decorative Art Nouveau style. This cabinet features an elaborate floral design made from wood that contrast with ivory. It differs from Art Nouveau in its symmetry and restricted colours.

Egyptienne chiming clock (1927) by Louis Cartier

Egyptienne chiming clock

When the tomb of Tutankhamun was excavated, it lead to immediate global fascination. The French jeweler Louis Cartier converted this fascination into his works, many of which incorporate traditional Egyptian materials and decorative techniques. ''Cartier even used authentic historical relics for some pieces'' (Glennon, 2017). The use of simplified geometric shapes, fields of unblended colour, symmetry and an emphasis on line are exemplary of this. American Art Deco artists, architects and designers tried vigorously to create an incredibly international style (Glennon, 2017). 

This detailed clock resembles the Egyptian temple architecture and decoration with its inlaid reliefs depicting human and divine figures. The base of the clock is carved from Lapis Lazuli which is a deep blue stone thought to possess divine powers and commonly associated with the creator goddess Isis, who is represented by the winged figure who appears at the top of the clock.

High Line Park in New York

High Line Park railings

The railings have repetitive use of linear, geometric, clean shapes. The old Art Deco railings of the High Line park were repaired by having the steel processed and restored misplaced pieces to their authentic design.

Harrods Shoe Salon by Shed

Spiral patterns below the ceiling at Harrods Shoe Salon

Harrods Shoe Salon was designed with an Art Deco theme. The interior attributes with spiral patterns above the ceiling. The sleek floors are made of marble with brass edges and complexed with sparkling ice blue glass. Even the stands are made of marble and its shelves of glass edged with brass. Coneshaped chandeliers  hang over featured collections. The aesthetic draws inspiration from Art Deco and combines classicism with ethos and mystique. This can be seen in every element of the environment, in the materials, colours, lighting and furniture as well. 

Coneshaped chandelier at Harrods Shoe Salon

References

Research:

"Art Deco Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org . Content compiled and written by Jen Glennon. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-art-deco-artworks.htm [Accessed 16 April 2017]

Rose Etherington. "Harrods Shoe Salon by Shed'' [Online]. 1 March 2011. Dezeen. Available from: https://www.dezeen.com/2011/03/01/harrods-shoe-salon-by-shed/ [Accessed 16 April 2017]

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Art Deco" [Online]. 27 February 2017. Encyclopædia Britannica. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/art/Art-Deco [Accessed 16 April 2017]

"High Line Park in New York"[Online]. 13 February 2017.  WikiArquitectura. Available from: https://en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/high-line-park-in-new-york/ [Accessed 16 April 2017]

Images:

"Art Deco Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org . Content compiled and written by Jen Glennon. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-art-deco-artworks.htm [Accessed 16 April 2017]

Rose Etherington. "Harrods Shoe Salon by Shed'' [Online]. 1 March 2011. Dezeen. Available from:https://www.dezeen.com/2011/03/01/harrods-shoe-salon-by-shed/ [Accessed 16 April 2017]

"High Line Park in New York"[Online]. 13 February 2017. WikiArquitectura. Available from: https://en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/high-line-park-in-new-york/ [Accessed 16 April 2017]

De Stijl

De Stijl which means just The Style in Dutch was founded in 1917. The central and celebrated artists well known with the movement were the painters Theo van Doesburg, who was also a critic and a writer, and Piet Mondrian, along with the architect Gerrit Reitveld. The members of De Stijl presented utmost clarity and conceptualization through which they incorporated an idealistic perspective of art, balance and its possible change. This was established through a simple form centered in common visual features to pure geometric forms such as straight lines, squares, rectangles and primary colours.

De Stijl was also the name of a journal which was published by Theo van Doesburg. The journal represented the members’ theories and innovative ideas, the most significant work of graphic design but the ideas of reduction of form and colour are major influences therefore making it the ulimate style. De Stijl artists focused not only on fine and applied arts but also had a profound influence on the development of both abstract art and modern architecture and design, even literature and music, assisting the International Style to progress.

Boy’s Bedroom (1919) by Vilmos Huszár and Pieter Jan Christophel Klaarhamer

Café de Unie (1925) by J.J.P. Oud

Interior of Aubette dance hall (1926-1928) by Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Jean Arp and Theo van Doesburg

Red and Blue Chair (1923) by Gerrit Rietveld

Red and Blue Chair (1923)

Although the chair was originally designed in 1918, its colour scheme of primary colours plus black, amalgamated the characteristic of De Stijl. Rietveld originally produced his Red and Blue Chair in a natural wood finish consisting of beachwood and plywood. He visualized a chair which manipulated rectilinear volumes, that analysed the interaction of vertical and horizontal planes and lines in distinctive methods, yet coped to circumvent intersection. Rietveld’s intentions were simplicity in construction. He constructed the chair from normal lumber. Considering his target that a considerable amount of his furniture could eventually be mass-produced rather than hand-crafted. Rietveld was convinced that there was an extensive target for the furniture designer than simply physical comfort and convenience, which is that of the well-being and comfort of the atmosphere whilst highlighting its manmade quality.

Rietveld Schroder House (1924) by Gerrit Rietveld

Rietveld Schroder House (1924)

The Rietveld Schroder House is an essential forerunner to the “Bauhaus-inspired International Style”(Wolf, 2017), as well as the unique construction designed in “complete accordance with the De Stijl aesthetic”(Wolf, 2017). “Rietveld gave a new spatial meaning to the straight lines and rectangular planes of the various architectural structural elements, slabs, posts and beams” (Sveiven, 2010) by considering the movement's emphasis on style, construction and purpose in its architecture and design. The design epitomizes an outstanding withdrawal from architectural convention and precedent. Inside there is no stable build-up of rooms as they are constructed  with movable portable partitions.

Rietveld Schroder House Interior

Yves St Laurent

Mondrian inspired dress from the YSL 1960s Archive at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The famous fashion designer Yves St Laurent was extremely influenced with De Stijl and Piet Mondrian. St Laurent, then launched his own collection which was labelled the ‘Mondrian Collection’. All dresses designed in this collection have all been made in bold primary colours, vertical and horizontal lines which is very similar to the grid idea of Mondrian.

Windows 8's Interface by Microsoft

Windows 8 Interface.

De Stijl has also left an impact on present technological designs like Windows 8's interface by Microsoft. The grid utilized to divide the layout and the simplicity it has, is comparable to the grids De Stijl designs were made up of.

Other examples:

As one looks through De Stijl, one can appreciate that it had a desired outcome on every aspect of design from small products to furniture, to architecture and interior design. It is fascinating that the features of this style are still used to this present day as its main characteristics are timeless and can be reused any time.

Eames House (1949) by Charles and Ray Eames

Primary (2010) by Sammy Bikoulis

Boogie poncho by Michael Barnaart van Bergen

Composition in black sheath dress by Michael Barnaart van Bergen

PHOENIX OBERHAUS LOBBY by Fadd Studio

Rumyantsevo station on the Moscow Metro's Sokolnicheskaya Line(2016)

References

Research:

Jesse Bryant Wilder (2007). Art History For Dummies. New Jersey- John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

"De Stijl Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. 2017. TheArtStory.org. Content compiled and written by Justin Wolf. Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors. Available from: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-de-stijl.htm [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Megan Sveiven. "AD Classics: Rietveld Schroder House / Gerrit Rietveld" 29 Dec 2010. ArchDaily. Available from: <http://www.archdaily.com/99698/ad-classics-rietveld-schroder-house-gerrit-rietveld/> [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Publication excerpt from The Museum of Modern Art, MoMA Highlights, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, revised 2004, originally published 1999, p. 86

stylesyllabus.wordpress.com. “The De Stijl Influence”.[online] Available at: <https://stylesyllabus.wordpress.com/2011/04/30/the-de-stijl-influence/> [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Alex Bigman. “A brief visual history of the utopian De Stijl movement”. [online]. 2013. 99designs. <https://99designs.com/blog/creative-inspiration/know-your-design-history-the-utopian-de-stijl-movement/> [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Images:

Publication excerpt from The Museum of Modern Art, MoMA Highlights, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, revised 2004, originally published 1999, p. 86

Megan Sveiven. "AD Classics: Rietveld Schroder House / Gerrit Rietveld" 29 Dec 2010. ArchDaily. Available from: < http://www.archdaily.com/99698/ad-classics-rietveld-schroder-house-gerrit-rietveld/> [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

stylesyllabus.wordpress.com. “The De Stijl Influence”.[online] Available at: <https://stylesyllabus.wordpress.com/2011/04/30/the-de-stijl-influence/> [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Alex Bigman. “A brief visual history of the utopian De Stijl movement”. [online]. 2013. 99designs. Available at: <https://99designs.com/blog/creative-inspiration/know-your-design-history-the-utopian-de-stijl-movement/> [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Rose Etherington. "Primary by Sammy Bikoulis for Triflow". [online]. 29 October 2010. dezeen. Available at: <https://www.dezeen.com/2010/10/29/primary-by-sammy-bikoulis-for-triflow/>  [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

"mondrian to dutch design". [online]. Michael Barnaart Van Bergen. Available at: <http://www.michaelbarnaartvanbergen.com/De-Stijl> [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Julia Ritson. "Boy’s Bedroom". [online]. 12 December 2011. julia ritson. Available at: https://juliaritson.com/2011/12/12/boys-bedroom/ [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Marcelo Gardinetti. "Café De Unie, J.J.P. Oud". [online]. November 2012. Tecnne. Available at: http://tecnne.com/arquitectura/cafe-de-unie-j-j-p-oud/ [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

FADD STUDIO. "Residential | PHOENIX OBERHAUS LOBBY".[online] Available at: http://faddstudio.com/apartment_lobby.php [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Wikipedia. "Rumyantsevo (Moscow Metro)".[online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumyantsevo_(Moscow_Metro) [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Wikipedia. "Theo van Doesburg".[online] Available at:  https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theo_van_Doesburg [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]

Wikipedia. "Eames House".[online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eames_House [Accessed 9 Apr 2017]